The Cross was a unique form of torture that forced the crucified ones to inflict pain upon themselves. In order to fully exhale they would have to press against the nail in their feet
Sean Michael Morris·May 15, 2023·Updated Sep 3, 2026
National governments using capital punishment when necessary is nothing out of the ordinary. There is a long history of people being nailed to wood in a variety of ways. However, the Cross of Rome was unique. Death by crucifixion was perfected by the Roman Empire. A medical analysis of the crucifixion will bring into view the physical components of this cruel form of execution.
“Crucifixion in the historical context of Rome was a form of execution which involved the hanging of a person on a cross-like structure, which consisted of a patibulum (the short-section of the cross), and the stipes (the long section of the cross), until he died (Bergeron (2012)). This form of execution was utilized by Rome since the Punic Wars when Rome became the major user of this form of death penalty for over 5 centuries upon criminals, political insurgents, and Jews (Retief (2003)). The process began with the offering of an analgesic narcotic/sedative-like drink, usually a mixture of wine and myrrh, to the subject, whose hands were then fastened by the wrists with nails to the patibulum, and the feet nailed upon the stipes. Following this, the subject’s clothes would be divided among the soldiers. At the onset of the crucifixion most victims likely were starved and thirsty, and in severe pain from the bleeding and wounding of the scourging process (Retief (2003)).
The nails are believed to be large iron spikes about 13 to 18 cm, with a 1 cm square shaft (Edwards (1986)). Cadaveric studies, and other researchers suggest that the nails most likely went through the carpal bones of the wrist, as opposed to the metacarpal space, due to the lack of ligaments in the surrounding areas of the metacarpals. A nail pierced through the metacarpals could pull easily through the soft tissue which would then be easily broken with the weight of the individual, unless he were held up with ropes — which is a possibility (Bordes (2020)). Cadaveric studies of nail spikes going through the carpal bones, metacarpal space, or the foot bones were not observed to break any bones, but nerve and ligament injury was common. This is consistent with the Biblical witness that all of Christ’s bones were “out of joint” (Ps. 22:14), that they pierced His “hands and his feet” (Ps. 22:16), and yet, that “a bone of him shall not be broken” (Jn. 19:36). The large nails driven into the hands and feet likely would have injured the median nerve, and the peroneal and plantar nerves respectively, resulting in further waves of severe pain (Bordes (2020)).
Nails as opposed to ropes are thought to have been preferred by the Romans as primary means of suspending the subject (Edwards (1986)). The duration until death ranged from hours, and often days depending on various factors such as the vitality of the subject, the severity of scourging, blood loss volume, and the degree of wounding (Snedecor (1973), Habermas (2021)). If there was a need to hasten or ensure death, the legs were broken, or a spear was used to stab the heart through the upper abdomen/chest, typically through the interspace between the fifth and sixth rib which provides direct access to the pericardium and heart, with a sharp weapon (David (2018), Retief (2003), Habermas (2021), Nicolaides (2019)). There are various theories concerning how subjects ultimately die from the crucifixion — the most prominent being asphyxiation (suffocation), cardiac trauma, shock, coagulopathy, suspension trauma, syncope, and fatal stab wound.
It is well-known that hanging from the arms made exhalation strenuous, and additionally that the slumped position of the thorax made necessary the use of the legs for exhalation (Bishop, 2006). Among medical and other types of researchers, it is thought that there are twice as many views with asphyxiation as the primary component than all other potential causes combined (Habermas (2021)). The basis for this theory is not merely the position of the chest cavity and extension of the arms relative to the anatomy of the chest muscles, but also the extraordinary cell oxygen loss caused by the entire crucifixion process (Habermas (2021)). Being hung by the arms with arms outstretched at an angle upwards from the horizontal plane of the lungs and diaphragmic plate would hinder breathing, and cause the subject to use the legs for assistance (Retief (2003)). Muscles such as the serratus anterior muscles are positioned on the ribs and involved in breathing. It is believed that restricted chest wall movement due to the expansion on the arms would make it necessary for the subject to pull up with his arms or push up with the feet. In this case, inhalation was made easier (passive), and expiration became increasingly difficult (active) as the pectoral muscles pulled the chest wall upward and outward, and all muscles were exhausted over time (Bergeron (2012), Bordes (2020)). Due to the difficulty of exhalation, the subjects may experience systemic respiratory acidosis with the inability of the lungs to clear carbon dioxide (Bordes (2020)). The experience of a slow prolonged death due to respiratory failure has been brought to the attention of the medical community afresh through the recent COVID-19 epidemic (Contou (2021)). To summarize, the majority view among historians and doctors is that death by crucifixion typically occurred through asphyxiation.”
- Dr. Preethi Morris
The Romans mastered the art of war. They were unrivaled on the battlefield. Some nations found success at war through strength and courage with an unrelenting will to survive in the chaos of battle. Some found success through a thoughtful and strategic plan of battle with an ordered and unified army of soldiers keeping rank. The knowledge that Rome acquired in war was then harnessed in the governing of subservient nations. The rule of law in the Empire was maintained through the spectacular punishment of dissidence and rebellion. This brings us to the Cross of Rome.
The Cross ofRome was designed to make a statement. The people were lifted up on the Cross to be seen by men. The ghastly sight was supposed to traumatize the spectators. Therefore, in being crucified, the condemned criminals were tortured for as long as possible, in the most painful way possible, with the least amount of work required by the executioners. All they had to do was stretch and nail a man to the Cross, and then raise it up in a secure place that was already prepared in the ground. The Cross does the rest of the work. Upon being lifted up 8 to 15 feet from the earth in an elevated location, like the hill of Golgotha, the choice instrument of execution would then continuously torture its subjects for many hours until death. Every moment was filled with unimaginable pain.
“And being found in fashion as a Man, He humbled Himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the Cross.”
— Php. 2:8
The Romans were experts at inflicting violence upon men. They knew how to kill men slowly or quickly. They possessed the skills to make it painful or relatively painless. The placement of the nails in between the carpal bones of the hands prevented a quick death by avoiding arteries while simultaneously promoting the maximum amount of pain by striking the median nerves. Similarly, the nails in the feet were driven through the plantar nerves. This pain contributed to the process of asphyxiation as the person was suspended on the Cross. By design, death by suffocation was inevitable.
Can you imagine how it feels to suffocate to death on a Cross? You need to understand the design of the Cross as an execution device. The placement of the nails in between the carpal bones of the hands, located in the lower region of each hand, secured the nails in a strong position. This restricted the movement of the nails while the full weight of the body was borne hard against the metallic edge. The arms were horizontally stretched on the Cross in an attempt to create a maximum amount of tension in the arms and chest cavity making it very difficult to breathe. Literally, this tension prevented a full exhalation while the person was in a hanging position, and if a man can’t fully exhale then neither can he fully inhale. The carbon dioxide buildup in the lungs would then prevent the intake of oxygen in the body, and this would slowly suffocate the person in a manner that is comparable to the casualties of Covid-19.
Upon being crucified, the people don’t just hang there on the Cross and wait to die. Don’tlet the cinematic reenactments fool you! This would only happen if the legs were broken to hasten the death of the crucified ones Why? Because this would force the people to submit to the suffocation process without a fight. Only then would you see the bodies go limp! Only then would you see the people become faint in expression and motionless in demeanor as they feel like they are being smothered to death. However, normally, when people are crucified, every moment was occupied in a painful struggle to survive. Furthermore, this personal struggle to survive was visible to the spectators.
The Cross was a unique form of torture that forced the crucified ones to inflict pain upon themselves. In order to fully exhale they would have to press against the nail in their feet so that a standing position could relieve the tension in the arms and chest cavity. To relieve the excruciating pain in their feet they would then return to a hanging position with groans and shrieks, only then to feel the pain in full force coming from the nails in their hands. In this manner the men were forced to fight for every breath! The Cross did not allow for even one second of relief. Literally, every breath was accompanied with a shock of radiating pain coming from the nailed extremities of the body.
An inability to fully breathe makes people panic. The desperation that comes over men who are suffering with air hunger is frightening to behold! This is why people don’t want to drown to death. Even though this would be a relatively painless way to die, most people are afraid of it because of the agony in the experience. Trying to breathe and being unable to, while struggling to stay above the surface of the water, can be a long-drawn-out battle of survival that ends in death because of exhaustion. How many hundreds of people over the centuries are drawn out into the ocean due to water currents? After some hours of struggling, unknowingly swimming against the current, it is then that reality begins to dawn upon them. The lonely feeling of desertion is horrifying. It's just them and the dark blue desert. Each one of them fought an epic battle to survive all alone in the deep.
Contrastingly, the crucifixions of Rome were public. The painful torture of the same was prolonged for as many hours as possible, and the more people who saw it the better. Rome was purposed to make a strong statement to society at the hill of Calvary. This is why the crime of the crucified ones was written on a sign and nailed above the heads of those who were deemed worthy of such punishment. Rome hoped to strike fear in the hearts of the people so that no such crimes would ever be committed again.
“For rulers are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same: For he is the minister of God to thee for good. But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he beareth not the sword in vain: for he is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath upon him that doeth evil.”
— Rom 13:3-4
The nations under Roman rule were often in agreement with the Cross of Rome. The Cross was often a cherished moment of justice for bereaved loved ones, jealous spouses, and vengeful victims when the crimes being committed were things like murder, rape, and robbery. It is important to understand this dynamic of the Cross of Rome. If the crimes were bad enough, the citizens of society would gather at the Cross to personally heap contempt and scorn upon the tortured subjects. The purpose of the Cross of Rome was to lift up the criminals before men – to be seen by men – as large crowds of people would come and project their anger and hatred upon the dying people. A cold feeling of utter desertion, abandonment, and forsakenness would come over the crucified ones. Literally, in this sense, to be crucified was to be forsaken by society! This brings us to the Jews.
“And Pilate wrote a title, and put it on the cross. And the writing was, JESUS OF NAZARETH THE KING OF THE JEWS. This title then read many of the Jews: for the place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city: and it was written in Hebrew, and Greek, and Latin. Then said the chief priests of the Jews to Pilate, Write not, The King of the Jews; but that he said, I am King of the Jews. Pilate answered, What I have written I have written.”
— John 19:19-22
“And sitting down they watched him there; And set up over his head his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS. Then were there two thieves crucified with him, one on the right hand, and another on the left. And they that passed by reviled him, wagging their heads, And saying,Thou that destroyest the Temple, and buildest it in three days, save thyself. If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross. Likewise also the chief priests mocking him, with the scribes and elders, said, He saved others; himself he cannot save. If he be the King of Israel, let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe him. He trusted in God; let him deliver him now, if he will have him: for he said, I am the Son of God. The thieves also, which were crucified with him, cast the same in his teeth.”
— Matt. 27:36-44
“And the superscription of his accusation was written over, THE KING OF THE JEWS. And with him they crucify two thieves; the one on his right hand, and the other on his left. And the scripture was fulfilled, which saith, And he was numbered with the transgressors. And they that passed by railed on him, wagging their heads, and saying, Ah, thou that destroyest the Temple, and buildest it in three days, Save thyself, and come down from the cross. Likewise also the chief priests mocking said among themselves with the scribes, He saved others; himself he cannot save. Let Christ the King of Israel descend now from the cross, that we may see and believe. And they that were crucified with him reviled him.”
— Mark 15:26-32
“And the people stood beholding. And the rulers also with them derided him, saying, He saved others; let him save himself, if he be Christ, the chosen of God. And the soldiers also mocked him, coming to him, and offering him vinegar, And saying, If thou be the King of the Jews, save thyself. And a superscription also was written over him in letters of Greek, and Latin, and Hebrew, THIS IS THE KING OF THE JEWS.”
— Luke 23:35-38
Most of the Jews that gathered at the hill of Golgotha were there to project anger and hatred upon Jesus of Nazareth. They were more persuaded than ever that Jesus was not the King of Israel. They were sure that theCross of Rome disproved this claim. Literally, they believed that the Cross was a sign to all of Israel that Jesus was not the Christ! Mockingly, they even challenged Jesus to descend from the Cross to prove His identity as a sign to everyone. They promised that if only Jesus would perform this one sign, then everyone there would come to faith in Jesus as the Christ (“that we may see and believe” – ).
One thing in particular disturbed the Jews and turned many from Jesus of Nazareth. You can hear it in the public challenge, when the Jews said, “Ah, Thou that destroyest the Temple, and buildest it in three days, save Thyself, and come down from the Cross.” Sadly, the Jews were grossly misinterpreting the gracious sign that Jehovah was giving to them. Consequentially, the sign that God was doing to inspire faith in the Jews was solidifying their unbelief. The crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus was the foremost sign that God was giving to the Jews to draw them into faith, and if they correctly understood the statement in question then they would know this to be the case.
“Then answered the Jews and said unto him, What sign shewest thou unto us, seeing that thou doest these things? Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this Temple, and in three days I will raise itup.”
— John 2:18-19
Most people were insincere in their requests for a validation of the identity of Jesus Christ. Immediately, upon our Lord visiting the Temple for the first time in public ministry, and as a consequence of cleansing it, the Jews asked the notorious question: “What sign shewest Thou unto us, seeing that Thou doest these things?” Sadly, this would become a common question posed by scorners because they were habitually disregarding the abundance of signs that were continually manifest. This form of questioning is the unbeliever’s pretentious quest for faith
Meanwhile, during the same visit to Jerusalem, so many miracles were being done that many honest souls “saw the miracles” and believed in Jesus as the Christ However, the posing of this notorious question from scorners, and the answer given by Christ (“Destroy this Temple, and in three days I will raise it up.” – ), marks the beginning of a growing plot of controversy.
The Sign for Scornful Unbelievers
“What sign shewest Thou unto us, seeing that Thou doest these things? Jesus answered and said unto them, Destroy this Temple, and in three days I will raise it up.” – This is where the controversy starts at the beginning of Christ’s ministry upon cleansing the Temple*
“Master, we would see a sign from Thee. But he answered and said unto them, An evil and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign; and there shall no sign be given to it, but the sign of the prophet Jonas:For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth.” – One greater than the Temple further clarifies how the Temple of His body will be destroyed and raised from the dead after three days like the sign of Jonah
“The Pharisees also with the Sadducees came, and tempting desired Him that He would shew them a sign from heaven. A wicked and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign; and there shall no sign be given unto it, but the sign of the prophet Jonas.” – The most infamous adversaries of Jesus were all given the same sign so that they might come to faith in the Son of God
“And said, This fellow said, I am able to destroy the Temple of God, and to build it in three days.” - Marvelously, this was the foremost accusation that was stated by false witnesses in the Jewish court of judgment
“And they that passed by reviled him, wagging their heads, and saying, Thou that destroyest the Temple, and buildest it in three days, save Thyself. If Thou be the Son of God, come down from the Cross.” – This most notorious accusation then evolved yet again into another open challenge on mount Calvary. They proposed that Jesus would at last prove His Messianic identity by coming down from the Cross, because the Jews were now utterly persuaded that Jesus was not the Christ
The insincerity of the Jews was acting as a blinding force. This insincerity rejected thewitness of an abundance of signs, unashamedly denying the authentication of manifold proofs, and then challenged the Messiah to perform yet another sign to validate Himself. In such circumstances, the dishonest inquirers were “tempting” the Lord On three separate occasions the Jews were asking Jesus for a “sign” with this purpose of heart Let the reader understand that a public inquiry of this kind was a challenge.
Graciously, our Lord accepted the challenge. In other words, Jesus Christ did not refuse to perform any signs before the challengers. Pay careful attention to this marvelous moment in history as the rulers of the Jews publicly challenged the King of the Jews! The public challenge was made, and then the challenge was accepted by our Lord. He said that there would be “no sign” except one in particular, the same which He called “the sign of the prophet Jonah” which is the very same sign being declared by the Messiah from the beginning, when He said, “Destroy this Temple, and in three days I will raise it up.”
When would Christ perform this unique sign before the rulers of the Jews? The finger of God pointed to the hill of Calvary and the nearby sepulcher. This was a sign that would be performed in the future. As a matter of fact, the challengers had a part to play in the performance of the sign. Originally, Jesus said, “Destroy this Temple…” which means that the Jews were going to kill Jesus of Nazareth. Therefore, as thedying Lamb of God hung on the Cross for hours, the Man was absolutely assured that an unprecedented sign was about to be performed in a staggering display of glory that would be completely undeniable. Marvelously, many scornful unbelievers would then come to faith in Christ through this most controversial sign on mount Calvary.
“Then said Jesus unto them, When ye have lifted up the Son of Man, then shall ye know that I AM he, and that I do nothing of Myself; but as My Father hath taught me, I speak these things. And He that sent Me is with Me: the Father hath not left Me alone; for I do always those things that please Him.”
— John 8:28-29
Apparently, the same people that killed the Son of God will then come to realize the identity of Jesus Christ at the crucifixion scene. Remarkably, Jesus said, “When ye have lifted up the Son of Man, then shall ye know that I AM he…” Compare this promise with the statement, “Destroy this Temple…” The same people that were doing the killing would then become believers! Are you surprised? The same people who were leveraging the Cross of Rome against Jesus of Nazareth, while boldly declaring Him to be forsaken of God as a false prophet, would then come to see the true meaning of the Cross.
“And I, if I be lifted up from the earth, will draw all men unto Me.”— Jn. 12:32
“And all the people that came together to that sight,beholding the things which were done, smote their breasts, and returned.”— Luke 23:48
A gracious light shined upon both Jews and Gentiles at mount Calvary. All men were being drawn! All the people, even those who lately blasphemed, were dramatically abased and visibly emotional when they beheld “the things which were done” at the death of the Crucified One What a marvelous testimony! The rulers of the Jews challenged Jesus of Nazareth, and in accepting the challenge, our Lord came through with the most compelling sign yet as a declaration of glory before doubtful and unbelieving sinners. Lo, and behold, many unbelievers then became believers!
Many people on the hill of Golgotha were feeling like Malchus felt in the Garden of Gethsemane or, like Simonthe Cyrene felt alongside his son Rufus and his Wife People were responding by faith like Joseph of Arimathaea and Nicodemus
Even an ignorant and unbelieving Centurion of Rome was made to confess, “Truly this Man was the Son of God.” How do you think he came to such a persuasion? Amazingly, many other thoroughly pagan Roman Soldiers under the Centurion’s command joined in this noble confession. These were the same soldiers that recently abused Christ in the Praetorium Can you believe it? Evidently, according to they all came to the same shocking realization that Jesus was the Christ, and confessed, “Truly this was the Son of God.” In retrospect, how else did the narrators of the Gospels come to know about what happened in the Praetorium, if none of the Roman Soldiers ever came to confess their evil deeds as an act of repentance and faith in Jesus Christ?
Did ever such a diverse congregation of scorners and blasphemers come to faith in Christ as on this momentous occasion at the hill of Calvary? The aforementioned Jews and Romans, alongside an unknown multitude, were so smitten with conviction that they likely fled from the scene in a hurry because a sense of uncontrollable remorse was coming over them
Many of the Jews came to discover that Jesus is Jehovah, the I AM even though going into that day they didn’t even believe that Jesus was greater than Abraham Neither Pilate, nor any of his Officers and Soldiers, believed that Jesus was a King. Otherwise, the crucifixion would not have even transpired They all felt that the Cross of Rome was the end of the matter. In this way the unbelievers were all in agreement about the Cross of Rome.
Remember, the true identity of Jesus Christ was concealed from most of the people until the last few minutes of that dark day. Literally, as they saw what happened, as they observed the manner in which Jesus of Nazareth died, and the events that immediately followed, with all the things that were said and done on earth below and heaven above, in a combination of shocking signs and wonders, only then did the people come to believe that this was the Son of God! As a matter of fact, leading up to this climactic moment, the Jews leveraged the Cross of Rome against Jesus of Nazareth by boldly declaring that He was hereby forsaken of God. However, amazingly, the unseen reality of the situation was then realized by many scorners, when at once they beheld the Cross of Rome and understood it to be Jehovah’s Tree.
The Doctrine of the Tree punctuates the Law in the Book of Joshua. This punctuation brings the needed closure to the story of divine wrath being depicted in the Law.
God tested Abraham with the trial of his life. The word of the LORD came to Abraham, and the renowned Patriarch was immediately filled with unspeakable anguish. God commanded him to give up his son,
In the presence of God the Consuming Fire, all eyes were fixed on Moses as a Mediator (Gal. 3:19). Similarly, Abraham said under inspiration, “God will provide Himself a Lamb for a burnt-offering” (Gen. 22:8).
In a marvelous prophecy, Abraham was called by God to assume the role of the Father in the Passion of Jesus Christ (Gen. 22:1-14). This viewpoint is rarely brought before readers even in the New Testament (Jn. 3:16,Rom. 8:32).
Instead of using the word “Cross”, the apostles referred to it as a “Tree” on three occasions while preaching to Jews and Gentiles in Acts 5:30, 10:39, & 13:29. Why?
Many sinners stopped celebrating and began crying. The noisy sound of reveling was replaced with strong regret and remorse. Many unbelievers began to make confessions of faith in dread amazement at what just happened!
